Power Objects: On the Transient Nature of Classifications, with Examples from the Kwilu Region in Congo-Brazzaville

Classifications, typologies, labels, and other organizational tools help us wade through complex cultural contexts specificities. They may be a point of departure that suggests clarity, providing veil reassurance. Yet, if not subject to renewal in terms temporal spatial considerations, they can become static mechanisms constrain obscure the wealth changing seemingly anomalous factors are essential features dynamic realities. As Gonseth et al. have stated, “the world cannot defined solely classifications … it has looked at through, between, over, above expressions our codes” (2013:19).In domain art, naming labeling game (attribution, provenance, identification object types) is major concern, with very different issues preoccupying scholars those private sector. Where monetary value art works remains fundamental driver, perennial “stylistic” criteria authenticity related ethnic labels repeatedly evoked maintained preserve easily recognizable market indicators.In scholarly circles, Renée Bravmann definitely “opened frontiers” 1973 by showing “avenues mobility” beyond “frozen cultures” William Fagg's 1960s “one tribe, one style” paradigm (Bravmann 1973: 9, 10; Fagg 1965: 11), yet “single stories” approach, which Gagliardi Biro (2019: 1) recently referred, an attributed “a whole group people or geographical area,” still currently used. Maxime de Formanoir (2019) shown how so-called Kota label, for example, applied 2017 Paris exhibition no fewer than 102 “reliquary figures”—aesthetically aligned simply on basis morphology style—has obscuring their exact regional provenance context production use.My concern here goes preoccupation style ethnicity, two vast topics debate (see 2020: 16–21) remain prime Western historical concerns, times little too intertwined. What interests me do reading interethnic visual forms, local performative ritual use, interpretation labeling. To exemplify this I will deal feature Congo-Gabonese Atlantic coastal region, but essentially from Congolese sector Kwilu province Congo-Brazzaville, where undertook research 1990s. conducted north border, note unpacks unbiased hopefully useful southern view specificities characterize part more extensive, variegated landscape practices beliefs.My study literature field Congo-Brazzaville led realize extent intertwined, realities confusing unfamiliar terrain (Hersak 2001). In absence evidence collection data about specific objects, as well anonymity (whether chosen imposed) carvers users, selective readings appear only avenues possible because easier with. referred previously homogenization simplistic Kongo-speaking complex, sociocultural entity stretches Gabon northern Angola This misrepresentation due difficulty dealing overwhelming amount documentation exists dating sixteenth century onwards, also sparsity recent investigations.In synchronic diachronic types been constraining academic taxonomies. For having dispensed admittedly vague term “fetish” (at least English), had since contact period early any manner fabricated construct Pietz 1985: 5–11), “power object” was introduced Anglophone 1980s designate empowered introduction substances “magically” animate it, bringing into play spirit forces good and/or evil purposes. Such objects natural ones (shells, horns, pots, bottles, etc.) anthropomorphic zoomorphic sculptures. Whether called figures” “fetishes” (as case Francophone literature), these distinguished ancestral figures guardians relics internal secret empowering ingredients, composed animal, vegetal, mineral components, concocted diviner-healer (nganga), solicit host common spirits dead rather ancestors. But, Allen Roberts Tabwa (1985: 14), Songye (both peoples DRC), sociopolitical contributed shifting identities time magically endowed community pieces soliciting acquiring power, status, prestige 2010: 40).To make things even confusing, indigenous nkisi continues used widely academics material power figure region. northwestern Equatorial Kongo world, empowerment source locally same manner. The nkisi, magical object, belongs region nature spirits, environmental territorial entities 2001:618-20).1 A nkosi (pl. sinkosi/tsinkosi) nkisi; familiar among (DRC) instead enslaved human agents sorcery. It difference vernacular terminology draws attention distinction exemplifies underlying complexity reality label figure” Kikongo nkisi. historians cognoscenti African certain evoke visually distinct categories but, we see, schematizations conceal changes nonvisual relating agency significant users.In looking further classifications, terminologies, attributions, now turn my work Republic Congo. came retrieve number extraordinary examples such collected German museum expeditions latter nineteenth twentieth (Fig. 1). But armed mentioned misleading obsolete seeking information culture itself mutated redefined. Significant were obviously longer well-known past; rather, mundane forms initially overlooked (e.g., tourist carvings market, rubber dolls, tin cans; Fig. 2). elder told me, importance from, who made what really looks like; its use effectiveness matter. explanation relates story borrowings, adaptations, integrations novel elsewhere emphasized Open Frontiers 9–22).There interesting relevant discussion longstanding trajectory whose significance recognized outset research. singular, freestanding, portable sculpture particular fixed village building type varied sources concentrated, displayed, performed, reflecting movements ideas. dynamic, polyvalent space encounter potential innovation, adaptable religious beliefs practices. perspective broadens meaningful contextual framing salient, individual elements (unlike sculptures perched pedestals museums) inseparable entirety lived space.My focus architectural structure, namely men's meeting house mwanza myanza)2 especially indispensable, defining feature, central pillar—which received far afield 3). is, fact, regional, multiethnic phenomenon conspicuous sight peoples, Vili stretch, Yombe rainforest east, adjoining Eshira-related Lumbu northeast, mosaic populations clustered around forestry sites main railway stations Les Sara Mayombe rain forest. national frontiers Gabon, DRC, Angola. Jan Vansina pointed out, prevalence mbanja temples associations spread Ogowe Delta expansion Loango kingdom trade began 1600 (1990: 158–59, 348). Those Tsogo Fang served Bwiti (or Bwete) association, undoubtedly most interest proceedings movement elaboration sculptural Raponda-Walker Sillens 1962; Swiderski 1970; Fernandez 1982).Among Vili, Yombe, roof shelters, usually occupying position village, fairly airy structures, generally supported six nine pillars, sometimes enclosed halfway three sides planks arrangement widespread poles. While quite simple modest, shelters village. Invariably constructed founding chief, first arrival site, represents “family,” matriline (dikanda) “house” would say 153); hence, presence several structures displays lineage alliances drawn sharing communal land. Apart receiving visitors, principle, exclusively male food shared palavers held. addition feasting judicial matters, place dance healing transformative activity nowadays female participants.In villages, relief carving present pillar, front 4).3 After subsequent research, found Father John Weeks published photograph 1889 Boma, he “king post” (1914: 20). And, much later, publications illustrations focused carved pillars council houses association mainly (Millot 1961: 72–74; Sillans 1962: 70, 71; Balandier 1966: 122; Gollnhofer 1978: 226, 228; 1982: 396–97; others). representations 1990s, though always manufacture, often comprised snakes, crocodiles, figures, Punu- Lumbu-style mukudj masks 5), some attached pillar 6). Their dismissed purely decorative respondents investigation continued, transpired embodied signaled representations. Interestingly, icons reference seen cement tombs 7). Alisa LaGamma noted, her Punu masking images placed entrance homes deceptively decorative, fact protective devices. create “psychological barrier inhibits ill-intentioned intruders,” both spirit. may, however, “worked on” expert enhance (1995: 118–19). That seems known perhaps foreign newcomer. Some spoke to—especially villages close along routes—confessed absent so evade suspicions housed mwanza, pillar.The bumbuli, Kwilu, said stronghold associated chief his mystical auxiliary, chinkoko/kinkoko/ikou,4 nocturnal animal pillar. somewhat misleadingly “totem”5 “wealth” “heritage” family, eldest matriline. chinkoko mystical, hybrid creature thrives family blood created Hagenbucher-Sacripanti calls “imaginary surgery,” transmutation head grafted body (1973: 152; 1983:207). auxiliary provides proprietor extrahuman capacities (1973:151-63; 1983) similarly aspect invisible powers about. MacGaffey, writing BaKongo Lower Congo drawing Karl Laman's information, does refer “animal familiar,” without (1986: 163). Laman, own publication, actually lengthy description “magic animal” kinkonko Sundi (1962: 37, 211). Among earlier unpublished sources, Christophe Marichelle, century, drew certainly chinkoko, démon familier (1909: 27). He noted indispensable workings nganga (diviner-healer) describes initiatory procedure creation affiliation 35).It autonomous potentially aggressively abusively justifiably, members. clearly sorcery, western Peter Geschière, emphasizes ambiguity encapsulated singular expression sorcery 20–21). perception, definition, practice finds parallels Cameroon Gabonese regions.6The therefore just ensemble. unquestionably object—and nkosi—the erected upon construction new and, like bundles, etc., ritually activated during impandi ceremony. Symbolically potent matter (bisemo) implanted base liquidized libations sacrifices. “like petrol car,” told. moment when needs bed”; must grounded something subsequently “fed” keep active. “in old days, kept nkosi,” figurai 8). did foot bumbuli 9),7 multiple large, single caryatide Sallée 373) 10). Many, all, caught photographed secluded “hors-champs” Mary (1997) refers to, reminiscent temples. proprietors habitat imagery referenced, denied associations, instance rebirth, visionary voyages, fertility (Swiderski 1970: 313, fig. 9). At origins Apindji 301), primarily sought protection ancestors buried (Raponda-Walker 198). course history diffusion chapters, liturgy integrated variations them turned forefront people's preoccupations (Bonhomme 2018: 155). Bonhomme observed, slightest, nonvoluntary sidesteps lead modifications ongoing (2018:158-59). seem show borrowings adapted beliefs.The similarity between obvious. Drawing definitions conflict resolution. solicits interaction visible forces, particularly centrality within confrontation contributes qualitative “architectonic integration” aspects life, discussed (1982: 125, 616, 617). Within extending outside frontal expanse, rituals take bring action all nature. liboka therapeutic/diagnostic lock horns diviner's double leaves departs dangerous shamanic journey rescue victim sorcerer (ndoki) (Figs, 11a–b). Marichelle confirmed beginning “boka” diviner services 27), affiliate identifies, thus demonstrating superhuman strength face similar opponents. liboka, derives iboga, shrub Tabernathe iboga Baillon hallucinogenic bark roots component initiations cult 46), word effect imported practitioners Congo, practices.8 accommodate specialists, many cases female, manipulate (bakisi basi) purposes wellbeing 12). possession bakisi trance therapeutic practice, masters whom resort additionally confront adversaries. important multiplex space, observed (Mary 1997: 69, 70), perform activities, sorcerers, auxiliaries, invoked. resonate border. “dances,” cults curing originated women's mabanza Mayumba (Figs. 13–14). Yet discourses, used, reflected precisely concerns.Through time, mobility practitioners, ideas, words, creative innovation kind kaleidoscopic spread. Given “open dynamism, ideologies undergone revisions impacting ongoing, reconstructions adaptations. fluid, living inevitably question terms, typologies need account trajectories changes, anomalies, hybridities, fit neat categories. MEN team Neuchâtel noted: “Behind certainties well-ordered sets lie singularities, coincidences, mixtures, ideal-types nonetheless typical greatest beings” (Gonseth 2013: 65).